INTRODUCTION:

Trachyspermum ammi (L.) Sprague (TA) from the family Apiaceae, is an old herb with various medical properties and widely used as spice. It is commonly known as bishop’s weed, carom seed and ajowan or ajwain, yamini in Indian and nankhwah in Persian languages.

Scientific classification:

Kingdom : Plantae

Class : Angiosperms

Subclass : Eudicots

Superorder : Asterids

Order : Apiales

Family : Apiaceae

Genus : Trachyspermum

Species : ammi

Binomial name : Trachyspermum ammi (L.) Sprague (Figure 1)

Synonym : Carum copticum Benth. & Hook.

Figure 1: Fruits of Ajwain (Trachyspermum ammi (L.) Sprague)

Vernacular names:

Hindi-Ajwain; English-Bishop's weed; Sanskrit-Yamini; Punjabi-Lodhar; Bengali-Yamani; Gujrati-Ajma; Kannada-Yom; Kashmiri-Kath; Unani-Nankhwah; Arabic: Kamoone malooki

Persian: Nankhwah, Zinian; French: Sison^1,2.

Synonyms:

Ammi copticum L., Trachyspermum copticum (L.), Carum aromaticum Druce, Carum copticum (L.), Ptychotis coptica (L.) DC^3,4.

General description and distribution:

TA belongs to the Family Apiaceae comprising 270 genera and species, mostly grown in the temperate regions of the world and also cultivated in tropics, especially India and North Africa. Ajwain is grown in Iran, Egypt, Afghanistan and India (largely in Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, Madhya Pradesh, Punjab, Rajasthan, Bengal, Tamil Nadu and Andhra Pradesh). It is generally grown in October-November and harvested in May-June. Though the plant is widely cultivated, it is indigenous to Egypt where it grows as a common weed in the fields².

It is an annual herbaceous plant bearing the greyish brown fruits (seeds) which constitute the spice. It is an erect, glabrous or minutely pubescent, branched annual, up to 90 cm tall, cultivated almost throughout India. Stems striate; leaves rather distant, 2-3 pinnately divided segments linear, ultimate segments 1.0-2.5cm long; flowers in terminal or seemingly-lateral pedunculate, compounds umbels, white, small; fruits ovoid, muricate, aromatic cremocarps 2-3mm long, greyish brown mericarp compressed, with distinct ridges and tubercular surface, 1-seeded. Flowers and fruits bearing from January-April^2,5.

Traditional uses:

In Indian system of medicine, ajwain is administered for disorders of stomach, a paste of crushed fruits is applied externally for relieving colic pains; and a hot and dry fomentation of the fruits is lapped on the chest to cure asthma^2,6. Ajwain-ka-arak (aqueous extract) is popular remedy for diarrhoea. Ajwain is widely used as stomachic, carminative, expectorant, antiseptic, amoebiasis and is prescribed to treat dipsomania, hysteria, sore throat, flatulence, dyspepsia, spasmodic disorders, bronchitis, diarrhoea, cholera, common cold, acute pharyngitis, sore and congested throat, abdominal tumor, abdominal pains and piles and infections with worms. The plaster or poultice is applied to the abdomen to cure colic^7-9.

Adulteration:

Ajwain seeds can be adulterated by exhausted or spent seeds, by addition of extra stems, earthy material, chaff or dust. The oil is also adulterated with Ajwain chaff oil. The range of essential oil is 2-4% and it should contain thymol ranging from 35 to 60%. If chaff oil is added, the thymol content will reduce to below 35 %. Detection of these adulterants can be done by gas chromatography or by thin layer chromatography coupled with high-performance liquid chromatography¹⁰. The adulteration at any level can be detected by using the specifications as explained separately for whole seed, powdered seed, volatile oil and oleoresin¹¹. Seseli diffusum Roxb. ex. Sm. or Apium graveolens (L.) Sprague is sometimes used as adulterants². Benzene: petrol (1:7) can be used for the detection of adulteration by using thin layer chromatography⁴.

Reported Phytoconstituents:

T. ammi contained was reported for the presence of terpenoids, carbohydrates, tannins, glycoside and fats⁷. Ajwain seeds were reported to possess fibre (11.9%), carbohydrates (38.6%), tannins, glycosides, moisture (8.9%), protein (15.4%), fat (18.1%), saponins, flavones and mineral matter (7.1%) containing calcium, phosphorous, iron and nicotinic acid and aluminium, cadmium, copper, lithium¹², and riboflavin, thiamine, nicotinic acid, carotene, chromium, cobalt, iodine, manganese, phosphorus and zinc¹³.

The Ajwain fruits yielded 2% to 4% brownish essential oil, with thymol as the major constituent (35% to 60 %)². The essential oil of TA procured from Siraz (Iran), contained mainly thymol (54.5%), γ-terpinene (22.9%) and p-cymene (19.3%) and aromatic, aliphatic and sesquiterpene constituents were not reported¹⁴. In another study from Tehran (Iran), showed thymol (49 %), γ-terpinene (30.8%), p-cymene (15.7%), β-pinene (2.1%), myrcene (0.8%), limonene (0.7%) with no carvacrol and aliphatic and aromatic compounds¹⁵. In an analysis of the essential oil of TA from Tehran indicated that p-cymene (37.18%), γ-terpinene (35.36%) and thymol (20.51%) are the main components¹⁶. The essential oil of TA from Sanliurta (Turkey) possesed mainly p-cymene (33.06%), γ-terpinene (28.66%), thymol (24.11%) and β-pinene (6.74%) (Table 1; Figure 2)¹⁷.

In another study from Gwalior forest region (central India), the major components of the TA oil were reported as thymol, γ-terpinene and p-cymene¹⁸. A study from Karnataka, India reported thymol (39.36%), γ-terpinene (30.97%), rho-cymene (19.47%), β-pinene (5.45%) and α-pinene (1.48%) as the major constituents from TA oil¹⁹. The significance variation of the chemical constituents of the ajwain oil from different regions may be regarded as chemotypes as thymol, p-cymene, carvacrol and γ-terpinene chemotypes. Therefore ajwain oil collected from different region may be used for particular nutritional and medicinal uses¹⁰.

Table 1: Reported major bioactive constituents of volatile oil of Trachyspermum ammi

S. No.	Major Constituents	Percentage range	Reference
1	Thymol	35 % to 60 %	2
2	γ-terpinene	22.9 % to 35.36%	14-17
3	p-cymene	19.3 % to 41.98%%	14-17
4	β-pinene	5.45% to 6.74%	14-17,19
5	carvacrol	45.20%	27

Dichloromethane extract of cell suspension culture of Carum copticum syn. T. ammi revealed the presence of 41 compounds. Major constituents were found to be elemol (11.5%), cadinol (10.6%), cadinene (7.8%), caryophyllene (6.2%), muurolol (4.9%), eudesmol (3.1%), elemene (3.9%), muurolene (2.6%), limonene (2.4%) and humulene (2.0%) while other compounds were present in trace amount²⁰.

Various glycosides were isolated from the water-soluble portion of the methanol extract of the fruit of Carum copticum syn. T. ammi and characterized as 3,7-Dimethyloct-3(10)-ene-1,2,6,7-tetrol, (2S,6Z)-3,7-dimethyloct-3(10)-ene-1,2,6,7-tetrol-1-O-β-D-glucopyranoside, 6-Hydroxythymol-6-O-β-D-glucopyranoside, 6-hydroxythymol-3-O-β-D-glucopyranoside, 2-methyl-3-buten-2-ol-β-Dglucopyranoside²¹, benzyl β-D-glucopyranoside, 19-(3-hydroxy-4,5- dimethoxyphenyl)-propane-29,39-diol, adenosine, uridine, (2S,3R)-2-methylbutane-1,2,3,4-tetrol, (3R)-2-hydroxymethylbutane-1,2,3,4-tetrol^4,22, 1-deoxy-D-ribitol, 1-deoxy-D-glucitol, 2-deoxy-D-ribino-1,4-lactone and D-hamamelose²³. From the fruits of TA 6-O-β-glucopyranosyloxythymol, 6-hydroxycarvacrol-2-O-β-D-glucopyranoside, 3,5-dihydroxytoluene-3-O-β-D-galactopyranoside, 2-methyl-3-O-β-glucosyloxy-5-isopropyl phenol were isolated as glycosyl constituents^24,25. Non-polar fraction of ajwain oil contained p-cymene, γ-terpinene, α-pinene, β-pinene, α-terpinene, styrene, δ-3- carene, β-phyllanderene, terpinene-4-ol and carvacrol. Also oleic, linoleic, palmitic, petroselinic acid, resin acids were isolated from fruits of Ajwain²⁶.

In a study Srivastava et al., reported p-cymene (41.98%), carvacrol (45.20%), and thymol (0.48%) as main chemical constituents²⁷. Chromone, a isomeric compound of coumarin known for its anticoagulant activity was determined in various growth stages of C. copticum by using high performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) and the results showed that the unripe fruits contain higher amount of chromone than dried²⁸.

Figure 2. Structures of reported phytoconstituents of essential oil of T. ammi fruits.

REPORTED BIOLOGICAL ACTIVITIES:

Hypolipidaemic activity:

The seed powder and methanolic extract of TA showed lipid lowering action by decreasing total cholesterol, LDL-cholesterol, triglycerides, total lipids in albino rabbits^29,30. The methanolic extract of TA showed anti-hyperlipidaemic activity against cholesterol and triton induced hyperlipidaemia in Wistar albino rats³¹.Aqueous and methanol extracts in the dose of 1,3,5g/kg body weight showed hypolipidaemic activity against triton X-100 induced hypolipidaemic rats and the dose of 5 mg/kg b.w. was found to be identical to the standard drug used (atorvastatin, 10 mg/kg b.w., orally)³².

Antidiabetic activity:

The major constituents and essential oil of T. ammi showed concentration dependent enzyme inhibition α-glucosidase enzyme³³.

Antioxidant activity:

The extract of seeds of TA exhibited antioxidant activity evaluated by using ABTS and DPPH assay methods, ferric reducing antioxidant power and total phenolic content³⁴. The ethanolic extract of TA showed antioxidant activity against hexachlorocyclohexane (HCH) induced lipid peroxidation³⁵. The major ingredients of volatile oil, volatile oil and ethyl acetate, acetone, and methanol fractions potentially inhibited the DPPH and ABTS free radicals³⁶.

Hepatoprotective potential:

TA showed hepatoprotective activity against paracetamol induced hepatotoxicity in rats and normalised the high serum levels of liver enzymes caused by CCl₄-induced liver damage in rats and also prevented the CCl₄-induced prolongation of pentobarbital sleeping time in mice³⁷.

Immunomodulatory Effect:

The n-hexane, chloroform, and methanol extract of Seeds of TA showed immunomodulatory as well as immunostimulant activity in delayed-type hypersensitivity (DTH) assay method on Wistar albino rats^38-40.

Antimicrobial activity:

Methanolic extract of seeds of TA showed antibacterial activity against Staphylococcus aureus, Staphylococcus epidermidis, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Basillus pumilus, Escherichia coli, Klebsiella pneumonia, Bordetella bronchiseptica⁴¹. Acetone and aqueous extracts of TA showed antibacterial activity against Enterococcus faecalis, Staphylococcus aureus, Escherichia coli, Klebsiella pneumonia, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Salmonella typhi, Salmonella typhimurium and Shigella flexneri using agar diffusion assay. Acetone extract showed more activity compared to aqueous extract⁴². Ethanolic extract of TA exhibited bactericidal activity against eight strains of Helicobacter pylori^43,44. The essential oil of seeds of TA exhibited antifungal activity against three strains of Fusarium oxysporum⁴⁵ and against Aspergillus niger and Curvularia ovoidea⁴⁶. Antibacterial, antifungal and antimicrobial activities of different extracts and essential oil of seeds of TA were also reported by other scientists^47-50. n-Hexane, chloroform, and aqueous extracts of seeds of TA exhibited significant antibacterial, antifungal, and anticholinesterase activities³⁶.

Antihypertensive, antispasmodic and bronchodilatory properties:

Intravenous administration of extracts of TA showed antihypertensive, antispasmodic and bronchodilating activity. The antispasmodic activity was found to be mediated through calcium channel blockade that supported the traditional use of TA in hyperactive disease states of the gut such as colic and diarrhoea as well as in hypertension³⁷. Thymol and different concentrations of the essence also exhibit a significant antispasmodic action on acetylcholine-induced contractions in isolated rat's ileum. The study suggested that relaxant effect of thymol is probably due to its anticholinergic property⁵¹. In a study, boiled extract of Carum copticum exhibited bronchodilatory effect on asthmatic airways which was comparable with the effect of theophylline at concentrations used in asthmatic patients⁵². The results of the study indicated an antitussive effect of Carum copticum which was even greater than that of codeine at concentrations used on guinea pig tracheal chains while it is also suggested that the antitussive effect of Carum copticum was not due to its main constituent, carvacrol^53,54.

Gastro protective action:

Ajwain was reported to acts as digestive stimulant by shortening the food transit time⁵⁵. Helicobacter pylori play a crucial role in the pathogenesis of peptic ulcer and gastric cancer. The ethanolic extract of T. ammi exhibited antibacterial effect against various strains of Helicobacter pylori⁵⁶. Administration of different doses of the essential oil protects from peptic ulcers in a dose-dependent manner. Thymol was found more potent in comparison to p-cymene and γ-terpinene among the main components. Administration of the essential oil and thymol observed maximum inhibition percentage. In the molecular docking study it was found that thymol has ability to inhibit H+/K+ ATPase¹⁶.

Analgesic, anti-inflammatory and antipyretic effects:

The ethanolic extract of TA fruits showed analgesic effect as it significantly increased tail-flick latency during 2 h post-drug administration assessed by tail-flick analgesiometer⁵⁷. The alcoholic and aqueous extract of TA showed significant anti-inflammatory activity against carrageenan induced rat paw edema and cotton pellets induced granuloma in rat model⁵⁸. It is also reported for antipyretic activity¹⁸. In a study, biogenic selenium nanoparticles (SeNPs) of TA seed extract decreased the severity and paw edema along with reduced lymphocytic cellular infiltration in collagen-induced arthritic mice⁵⁹.

Antiviral activity:

The methanolic extracts of TA exhibited in vitro antiviral activity against hepatitis C virus (HCV) protease⁶⁰. In a study, Ajwain oil showed potential in vitro antiviral activity against Japanese encephalitis (JE) virus. The in vitro cytotoxicity assay was performed in vero cell line by 3-(4,5-dimethylthiazol-2-yl)-2,5-diphenyltetrazolium bromide (MTT) assay method and in vitro anti-JE activity of ajwain oil was studied using PRNT method (Plaque reduction neutralization test, PRNT)⁶¹.

Insecticidal properties:

The essential oils from seven common spices including TA were isolated and their insecticidal, oviposition, egg hatching and developmental inhibitory activities were determined against pulse beetle, Callosobruchus chinensis. These essential oils caused death of adults and larvae of C. chinensis when fumigated and caused chronic toxicity to the fumigated insects⁶².

Antifilarial activity:

A methanolic extract of fruits of TA showed antifilarial activity against adult bovine filarial Setaria digitata worms. It was screened for in-vivo antifilarial activity against the human filarial worm B. malayi in Mastomys coucha, showing macrofilaricidal activity and female worm sterility in vivo against B. malayi⁶³.

Anthelmintic Activity:

The crude powder, aqueous and methanol extract of TA showed in vivo anthelmintic activity against gastrointestinal nematodes of sheep⁶⁴ and specific helminths Ascaris lumbricoides in humans and Haemonchus contortus in sheep⁶⁵. Its anthelmintic activity was exerted by interference with the energy metabolism of parasites through potentiation of ATPase activity and thus loss of energy reserves⁶⁶. It is also reported to possess cholinergic activity with peristaltic movements of the gut, thus helping in expulsion of intestinal parasites^67,68. The alcoholic and aqueous extract of seeds of TA exhibited anthelmintic activities on Indian adult earthworm Pheretime posthuma (Annelida) which was found to be comparable with standard drug albendazole⁶⁹.

Antiplatelet activity:

An ethereal extract of TA showed antiplatelet activity by inhibiting platelet aggregation induced by arachidonic acid (AA), epinephrine and collagen⁷⁰.

Antihistaminic effect:

Extracts and essential oil of TA were studied for their antihistaminic effect using guinea pig tracheal chains. The results showed clear rightward shifts in histamine response curves and chlorpheniramine indicated a competitive antagonism effect at histamine H₁ receptors⁷¹.

Abortifacient and galactogogue actions:

Survey conducted in 1987 concluded that 14 indigenous medicinal plants including TA were reported to show abortifacient activity in some districts of Uttar Pradesh (India). Specifically, in the village of Kallipuschium, Lucknow district, 50 of the 75 pregnant women who were surveyed (of a total of 155 women in the fertile period) claimed to have used TA seed for abortion. There was a high risk of potential human foetus toxicity of ten plants including TA, based on teratogenicity observed in rat foetuses⁷². The National Dairy Research Institute (Karnal, India) investigated the oestrogenic content of some herbs (including T. ammi) that were traditionally used to increase milk yield in dairy cattle. TA was also traditionally used as a galactogogue in humans. The total phytoestrogen content of dry TA seed was 473 ppm, which was the second highest in the list of eight herbs tested (total phytoestrogen contents 131-593 ppm)⁷³.

Antifertility activity:

The ethanolic extract of TA fruits showed antifertility activity tested on male reproductive system by decreasing the testis weight, sperm count, sperm motility, increase in production of abnormal sperms and cellular pattern of the testis. The findings indicated that the fruit extract is a very good choice of male anti-fertility drug which can be formulated as a male contraceptive formulation⁷⁴.

CONCLUSION:

Trachyspermum ammi or Ajwain belongs to family Apiaceae (previously known as Umbelliferae) containing p-cymene, thymol and carvacrol as bioactive major ingredients in essential oil. As stated above the plant possesses various medicinal properties so it may be of therapeutic value in treating of various disorders. Therefore, further clinical studies for the different effects of the plant as well as its main chemical constituents are highly recommended. Ajwain is reported to be beneficial in obesity and related disorders. Obesity is a global health issue they may causes many health problems like cardiovascular disease and diabetes mellitus^75-77. Today India leads the world with maximum number of diabetes patients being as the diabetes capital of the world^78-80. Lead molecules may be obtained from the Trachyspermum ammi due to its potential antidiabetic activities.

CONFLICT OF INTEREST:

The authors declare that they have no conflict of interest.

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Received on 24.03.2021 Modified on 08.07.2021

Research J. Pharm. and Tech. 2022; 15(5):2364-2370.

DOI: 10.52711/0974-360X.2022.00393